The Lingering Shadow: Slavery in Southeast Asia and Malaya.
From Origins, Up to Islam.
Slavery, a complex institution spanning millennia, profoundly marked the history of Southeast Asia. Far from being a uniform practice, it manifested in various forms, adapting to the social, economic, and religious contexts of different regions. I shall explain here the pervasiveness of slavery throughout this vast geographical area, focusing particularly on what would become Malaya, and distinguishing the dynamics at play before and after the introduction of Islam. My analysis will reveal a continuity of the practice right up to the arrival of the Europeans.
Before the arrival of Islam, slavery was an integral component of Malayan societies and the rest of Southeast Asia. The pre-Islamic kingdoms and communities had developed systems of subjugation rooted in the realities of the time. The sources of slaves were multiple and reflected the power dynamics and socio-economic needs of the various kingdoms. Warfare and raids constituted a primary source, with captured prisoners often reduced to servitude. Intercommunal conflicts and punitive expeditions fuelled this flow of individuals deprived of their liberty. Debt thus represented another path to enslavement, with the inability to repay a debt leading to the servitude of the individual or their family. Criminality could also be sanctioned by slavery. Finally, in certain social structures, slave status could be hereditary, thus perpetuating the chains of servitude across generations.
The roles of slaves in pre-Islamic societies were diverse. They were employed primarily as domestic servants within the households of the elite and the affluent, performing daily tasks and contributing to the prestige of their masters. Although the extent of this practice may have varied, they could also be employed in agriculture, participating in field work. Craftsmanship and construction were other areas where servile labour was utilised. In short, slavery was a crucial cog in the economic and social functioning of pre-Islamic Malayan societies, contributing to production, the maintenance of status, and the demonstration of power.
Islam.
The arrival of Islam in Southeast Asia, starting in the 13th century, marked a significant transition, but it didn't lead to the abolition of slavery. On the contrary, the institution adapted and persisted under the influence of the new religious and legal norms. Islam introduced regulations concerning the treatment of slaves and, in principle, forbade the enslavement of Muslims by other Muslims. This distinction had a direct impact on the sources of slaves, favouring raids and trade targeting non-Muslim populations, notably the Orang Asli in the Malay Peninsula (1).
The Malay sultanates, once Islamised, adopted slavery into their social and economic structures. Melaka, in the 15th and 16th centuries, became a flourishing commercial centre, including for the slave trade. Merchants transported non-Muslim captives to the sultanates, fuelling the demand for servile labour. The roles of slaves remained largely similar to the pre-Islamic period, with a strong concentration in domestic work, but also use in agriculture and craftsmanship. The ownership of slaves remained a symbol of social status and wealth. It's important to note that slavery in Southeast Asia, including in Malaysia, displayed regional specificities and important nuances. The living conditions of slaves, their rights (or lack thereof), and the possibilities of buying their freedom varied considerably from one society to another. Some forms of enslavement could be milder, with gradual integration into the master's family, while others were marked by brutality and extreme exploitation.
The gradual abolition of this cultural, or rather civilisational, slavery in the region only came about with European colonisation in the 19th and 20th centuries. The colonial powers, notably the British in Malaya, progressively implemented legislation aimed at banning the slave trade and, ultimately, slavery itself. However, this abolition was a slow and complex process, and forms of forced labour and debt bondage persisted beyond the official prohibitions.
Slavery and Exploitation in South-East Asia under Western Colonialism.
The Western colonisation of South-East Asia, initiated by the Portuguese in the 16th century and intensified by the Dutch and the British, profoundly transformed the societies of the region. Whilst, as we’ve seen, slavery already existed in various forms, the arrival of the European powers introduced new dynamics, intensified certain practices, and engendered forms of exploitation which, although sometimes described differently, perpetuated relationships of domination and servitude.
The arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century, although primarily focused on trade and the establishment of strategic trading posts such as Malacca (2), had an impact on existing systems of slavery. The Portuguese were themselves involved in the Atlantic slave trade and imported slaves from Africa into Asia (3). They also perpetuated and profited from local slavery, using slaves for domestic labour, in their colonies, and in regional trade. The Portuguese contributed to the integration of South-East Asia into global trade networks, which intensified the demand for and regional trade in slaves.
In the 17th century, the Dutch supplanted the Portuguese as the dominant power in a large part of the Indonesian archipelago. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) established a colonial system focused on the extraction of resources and the control of trade. Slavery became a central element of this system. The Dutch used slaves to work on plantations (particularly spices), in mines, in construction, and as domestic labour. The sources of slaves were varied: local populations enslaved during conflicts or through debt, but also individuals imported from other regions of Asia, including India and Ceylon. Batavia (Jakarta) became an important centre for the slave trade under the VOC administration. The VOC’s regulations governed the lives of slaves, often in a brutal and restrictive manner. But the real impact on the continent was more economic in nature; increased Western demand required more raids and more conflicts.
The influence of the British increased later, primarily from the 18th century onwards, with the establishment of colonies such as Penang, Malacca (after a Dutch period), and Singapore, as well as their expansion into Burma and Malaya. Initially, slavery was also present in these British colonies, although its economic significance may have varied depending on the region and the period. The British used slaves for domestic labour and in certain economic activities. However, in the 19th century, under the influence of the abolitionist movement, Great Britain progressively outlawed the slave trade (1807) and slavery in its colonies (1833).
A slavery that no longer went by the name.
Despite formal abolition, British colonisation engendered forms of exploitation that bore similarities to traditional slavery. The introduction of indentured labour schemes, particularly to meet the demand for manpower in the rubber plantations and tin mines of Malaya, often led to extremely difficult living and working conditions for immigrant workers, notably those from China and India. These systems were characterised by binding contracts, low wages, enforced debt, and limited mobility, trapping many workers in a situation of de facto servitude until their deaths, without the possibility of freedom. The case of Chinese labourers bought and sold cheaply throughout the 19th century illustrates a form of exploitation where individuals were recruited (sometimes through deception or force) in China and transported to Southeast Asia to work in appalling conditions. Their "purchase" by employers and their subsequent sale to other parties amounted to a form of human trafficking and debt bondage. Similarly, the selling of Chinese women into sexual slavery, often within the context of prostitution networks fuelled by male immigrant communities and the colonial setting, represents an abject form of exploitation and dehumanisation. These practices, whilst not always termed "slavery" in the strict sense after abolition, shared fundamental characteristics of loss of liberty, control by others, and economic and sexual exploitation, which persisted until the early 20th century.
Conclusion.
Even though slavery as it was historically practised has been largely criminalised, modern forms of slavery and human trafficking continue to exist in Southeast Asia today. This includes forced labour in various industries (fishing, agriculture, manufacturing), sexual exploitation, domestic servitude, and the trafficking of human beings. These contemporary forms, although often concealed, perpetuate the power dynamics and exploitation that have characterised the history of slavery in the region for centuries. In conclusion, slavery in Southeast Asia has undergone a long and complex evolution, from pre-Islamic structures of dependency to the intensified and new forms introduced by Western colonisation, right up to modern manifestations of human trafficking and forced labour. Although the legal frameworks have changed, the tenacious shadow of exploitation and the loss of liberty continues to loom over certain populations in the region, serving as a reminder of the need for constant vigilance and concerted efforts to eradicate all forms of slavery.
EmbunRoseDH.
Notes:
1: The Malay term "sakai" was the word used to name these populations, but it unfortunately acquired a pejorative connotation, synonymous with slave, demonstrating this dynamic.
2: https://www.colonialvoyage.com/portuguese-malacca-1511-1641/
3: On this topic, absolutely read Anthony Reid’s book, "A History of Southeast Asia" published by Palgrave Macmillan, (1988), as it explains this rarely discussed and explored facet of the Portuguese importation of African slaves into Southeast Asia.
References:
General book on Slavery in Southeast Asia:
"Maritime China in Transition, 750-1450", by Wang Gungwu (王赓武) (2003). Curzon Press. Without a doubt the most comprehensive work on a rarely studied area in such depth, focusing on the commercial nature and trade routes of the Chinese. Mr Wang Gungwu is a leading historian, born in Indonesia to Chinese parents and having spent a large part of his career teaching and researching in Malaysia, Hong Kong, Australia, and Singapore. His work here focuses on China's role in maritime exchanges with Southeast Asia during a crucial period, addressing the place of slavery in these exchanges. Be aware though, the English edition is out of print and only the Chinese edition remains.
“The Southeast Asian Port and Polity: Rise and Demise”, by J. Kathirithamby-Wells and John Villiers. (1990). Singapore University Press. Although focused on regional ports and politics, this work contains important information on the role of slavery in the maritime economies of Southeast Asia.
“A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads”, by Anthony Reid. (2015). Wiley Blackwell. A more recent and concise work on Southeast Asia, which also addresses the issue of slavery in the region.
“Southeast Asia: An Environmental History”, by Peter Boomgaard. (2019). Bloomsbury Academic. Mr Boomgaard here offers perspectives on labour and social systems, including slavery, in connection with the exploitation of resources.
“Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830, Volume 1: Integration on the Mainland”, by Victor B. Lieberman, (2003). Cambridge University Press. In my view, the ultimate reference work for properly understanding the civilisational aspect of slavery in the region. It offers a comparative context and addresses social and economic structures.
Book on the Period Preceding the Arrival of Islam in the Region:
“The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500”, by Paul Wheatley. (1961). University of Malaya Press. Excellent works focusing on the social structures and interactions that preceded Islam.
“Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia Swearer”, by Donald K and John McCabe. (2016). Rowman & Littlefield. It contains information on social practices and hierarchies, including forms of dependence, in the Buddhist kingdoms that preceded or coexisted with Islam in certain regions.
“The Malays. The Peoples of South-East Asia and the Pacific”, by A.C. Milner. (2010). Wiley-Blackwell. A thorough study of Malay history and culture which addresses traditional social structures, as well as pre- and post-Islamic slavery in the region.
Book on Malaysia and Neighbouring Regions:
“Borneo and the Indian Archipelago”, by James Francis Warren. NUS Press. (2007). This essential book addresses the comparative context of slavery practices in the regions neighbouring Singapore. Unfortunately, the edition is out of print and no longer available. To find it, you would need to visit libraries that hold it.
“Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680, Volume One: The Lands below the Winds”, by Anthony Reid. (1988). Yale University Press. A fundamental work offering a socio-economic context of the region, including slavery practices.
“The Sulu Zone, 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State”, by James Francis Warren. (1981). University of Wisconsin Press. Another excellent work by Mr Warren, focused on the Sulu Zone and offering comparative perspectives on maritime slavery in the region.
“A History of Malaysia”, by Barbara Watson Andaya, and Leonard Y. Andaya (1982). Macmillan Asian Histories Series. This book remains a reference and a historical overview of Malaysia, including social and economic aspects such as slavery before and after Islam.
“Treacherous River: A Study of Rural Chinese in North Malaya”, by Newell, William H. (1962). Malayan Sociological Research Institute. Very good anthropological work on the social structures that may have interacted with slavery systems.
Book on Western Colonisation and its View of Human Exploitation:
“The Rise and Fall of the Plantation Complex: Essays in Atlantic and Indian Ocean History” by Philip D. Curtin. (1998). Cambridge University Press. Curtin here helps us understand the mechanisms of plantations and offers a comparative framework for understanding slavery in the colonies of Southeast Asia.
“Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism, 1834-1922”, by David Northrup. (2007). Cambridge University Press. Excellent and rare comparative analysis of forced labour under contract, relevant for understanding post-abolition forms of exploitation in Southeast Asia.
“Capitalism and Confrontation in Sumatra's Plantation Belt, 1870-1979”, by Ann Laura Stoler. (1995). University of Michigan Press. Mrs Stoler addresses labour relations and forms of control of the workforce within plantations.
“Chinese Migrants between Worlds: Fuzhou, Fujian and the Rural Sociology of Diaspora, 1840-1940”, by Adam McKeown. (2001). Stanford University Press. The definitive work that explores the dynamics of Chinese migration and the working conditions bordering on slavery of Chinese migrants, including different forms of exploitation.
